Coercive pressures: Perceived dominating influences from external entities and competitive necessities. Teo et al. (2003b), Vachani (2005), DiMaggio & Powell (1983).
Although the extant literature and this study conceptualise three types of institutional forces – mimetic, normative and coercive (DiMaggio & Powell, 1983; Teo et al., 2003b; Liang et al., 2007), we focus on only the former two when developing our moderating hypotheses, and for a theoretical reason, exclude the coercive forces.
In contrast, coercive forces are typically more explicit because they tend to be conveyed by regulatory bodies, industry associations and the like. In many contexts, coercive forces are also akin to survival neces- sities and thus taken for granted, such that the role of ACAP in influencing the transmission of coercive forces is marginalised.